Síndrome de distrés respiratorio agudo en pediatría / Pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome

The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) is a life-threatening disease with a high mortality rate. In children it represents a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. The primary feature in the development of ARDS is the non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema resulting from a disproportionate inflammatory response that increases the blood-gas barrier permeability. There is strong evidence that aninappropriate ventilatory support may induce lung injury, organ dysfunction and increasing mortality.The aim of this article is to review current concepts related to the diagnostic of pediatric ARDS, its pathophysiologic mechanisms, ventilator induced lung injury and a brief description of rescue therapies.

El Síndrome de Distrés Respiratorio Agudo (SDRA) es una entidad grave de elevada mortalidad, siendo en pediatría un desafío diagnóstico y terapéutico. La característica primaria del SDRA es el desarrollo de edema pulmonar no cardiogénico debido a una respuesta inflamatoria excesiva que aumenta la permeabilidad de la barrera sangre-gas. Existe una fuerte evidencia de que una estrategia inadecuada de soporte ventilatorio puede aumentar el daño pulmonar, inducir disfunciones de َrganos a distancia y aumentar la mortalidad.El presente artيculo pretende revisar conceptos actuales relacionados al diagnóstico de SDRA pediátrico, mecanismos fisiopatológicos, daño pulmonar inducido por la ventilación mecánica y una breve revisión de las terapias de rescate.

Progressos e perspectivas na síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo em pediatria / Progress and perspectives in pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome

RESUMOA síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo é uma patologia de início agudo, marcada por hipoxemia e infiltrados na radiografia de tórax, acometendo tanto adultos quanto crianças de todas as faixas etárias. Ela é causa importante de insuficiência respiratória em unidades de terapia intensiva pediátrica associada a significativa morbidade e mortalidade. Apesar disso, até recentemente, as definições e os critérios diagnósticos para síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo centravam-se na população adulta. No presente artigo, revisamos a evolução da definição da síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo ao longo de quase cinco décadas, com foco especial na nova definição pediátrica. Discutimos ainda recomendações relativas à aplicação de estratégias de ventilação mecânica no tratamento da síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo em crianças, assim como o uso de terapias adjuvantes.

ABSTRACTAcute respiratory distress syndrome is a disease of acute onset characterized by hypoxemia and infiltrates on chest radiographs that affects both adults and children of all ages. It is an important cause of respiratory failure in pediatric intensive care units and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Nevertheless, until recently, the definitions and diagnostic criteria for acute respiratory distress syndrome have focused on the adult population. In this article, we review the evolution of the definition of acute respiratory distress syndrome over nearly five decades, with a special focus on the new pediatric definition. We also discuss recommendations for the implementation of mechanical ventilation strategies in the treatment of acute respiratory distress syndrome in children and the use of adjuvant therapies.

Trali, una amenaza enmascarada: definición, aspectos epidemiológicos y clínicos / Trali, a masked threat: definition, epidemiological and clinical aspects

El daño pulmonar agudo relacionado con la transfusión o TRALI, como más comúnmente se le conoce, por definición no se diferencia de otros tipos de distrés respiratorios, salvo por su origen demostrable y su estrecha relación temporal con la transfusión. Constituye una de las reacciones adversas más peligrosas del uso de productos sanguíneos y sus peculiares características le permiten enmascararse entre los muchos factores que pueden desencadenar un daño pulmonar agudo, especialmente en algunos pacientes que resultan más susceptibles a su desarrollo. El propósito de esta revisión es hacer un recordatorio de su existencia, sobre todo a aquellos médicos que manejan cotidianamente pacientes demandantes de componentes sanguíneos y cuya condición clínica favorece su aparición. Sus principales variables epidemiológicas (ej: incidencia y mortalidad) varían, a veces de manera notable, entre los distintos informes. La heterogeneidad de criterios aun después de la consecución de consensos internacionales para su diagnóstico, dificulta aprovechar al máximo los datos obtenidos de los distintos estudios realizados sobre su comportamiento y ha promovido la aparición de no pocos resultados contradictorios. Su diagnóstico clínico representa un reto al presentarse en medio de contextos clínicos que hacen plantear otras causas para la aparición del distrés respiratorio. Por ello, muchas veces pasa inadvertido o es mal identificado(AU)

Transfusion-related acute lung injury better known as TRALI, has not differences with other kinds of acute respiratory distress, except for its close relation with transfusion. It is considered among the greatest hazards on blood products use. With its peculiar characteristics it mimics within the many factors that may trigger an acute respiratory distress, especially among those patients at high risk for suffering lung damage after transfusion. The main purpose of this review is to make a recall of the existence of TRALI for those physicians who deal with high transfusion-demanding patients or those with conditions which could represent a risk for its development. TRALI´s main epidemiological variables (such as incidence and mortality) show important variations among different investigations. The criteria heterogeneity, even after the consecution of international diagnostic consensus, has made it difficult to take advantage of the data arose from multiple studies about its behavior, promoting the report of not a few contradictory results on worldwide publications. Diagnosing TRALI represents a real challenge for the clinician since it often appears within the context of various possible causes for an acute respiratory distress. This is why TRALI is frequently overlooked or misdiagnosed(AU)

Síndrome de angústia respiratória aguda após Berlim / Acute respiratory distress syndrome after Berlin

As definições de Berlim tiveram o objetivo de aumentar a acurácia diagnóstica frente à Síndrome de Angústia Respiratória Aguda (SARA), principalmente no que diz respeito à sua estratificação de gravidade e ao seu prognóstico, progressivamente pior, associado a esta classificação. Esta distinção permitiu, inclusive que a abordagem terapêutica fosse aplicada de maneira mais oportuna e adequada, no momento da detecção da SARA grave, como, por exemplo, o uso da posição prona. Entretanto, ainda críticas existem sobre essas definições, que determinam incertezas relativas à reprodutibilidade, relacionada à estratégia ventilatória inicial pré diagnóstico, e à sua validade preditiva para letalidade. Portanto, essa revisão aborda esses questionamentos e apresenta possíveis melhorias futuras na sensibilidade e especificidade diagnósticas dessa síndrome de elevada letalidade em nosso país...

Berlin definition was intended to increase the diagnostic accuracy upon the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS), particularly with regard to its stratification of severity and prognosis, progressively worse, associated with this classification. This distinction has allowed even that the therapeutic approach was applied in a more timely and adequate way at the time of detection of severe ARDS, such as, for instance, the use of the prone position. However, there is still criticism about these settings that determine uncertainties regarding the reproducibility, related to the initial ventilatory strategy before this diagnosis, and its predictive validity for mortality. Therefore, this review addresses these questions and presents possible future improvements in the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of this highly lethal syndrome in our country...

Evolução temporal das definições de síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo / Temporal evolution of acute respiratory distress syndrome definitions

OBJETIVO: revisar a evolução das definições de síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo e apresentar a proposta atual para a mesma. FONTES DOS DADOS: revisão bibliográfica e seleção de publicações mais relevantes sobre as definições de síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo, utilizando a base de dados MEDLINE®/PubMed® Resources Guide (últimos dez anos), além da inclusão dos artigos mais importantes (artigos clássicos) que descrevem a evolução da doença. SÍNTESE DOS DADOS: revisão incluiu os seguintes tópicos: introdução; importância da definição; descrição do primeiro critério diagnóstico e das definições utilizadas subsequentemente, como o escore de lesão pulmonar aguda, definição da Conferência de Consenso Americana- Europeia e suas limitações, descrição da definição de Delphi e seus problemas; acurácia das definições citadas e descrição da definição mais recente (Definição de Berlim) e suas limitações; e importância prática da nova definição. CONCLUSÕES: a síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo é uma doença grave, que consiste em um contínuo desafio diagnóstico e terapêutico. A evolução das definições utilizadas para descrever a doença evidencia que estudos são necessários para validar a definição atual, principalmente em pediatria, onde os dados são muito escassos.

OBJECTIVE: to review the evolution of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) definitions and present the current definition for the syndrome. DATA SOURCE: a literature review and selection of the most relevant articles on ARDS definitions was performed using the MEDLINE®/PubMed® Resource Guide database (last ten years), in addition to including the most important articles (classic articles) that described the disease evolution. DATA SYNTHESIS: the review included the following subjects: introduction; importance of definition; description of the first diagnostic criterion and subsequently used definitions, such as acute lung injury score; definition by the American-European Consensus Conference, and its limitations; description of the definition by Delphi, and its problems; accuracy of the aforementioned definitions; description of most recent definition (the Berlin definition), and its limitations; and practical importance of the new definition. CONCLUSIONS: ARDS is a serious disease that remains an ongoing diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. The evolution of definitions used to describe the disease shows that studies are needed to validate the current definition, especially in pediatrics, where the data are very scarce.

Pulmonary tuberculosis presenting with acute respiratory distress syndrome [ARDS]: a case report and review of literature

Tuberculosis is a very highly prevalent disease particularly in the developing world. In India one person dies of tuberculosis every minute. It can be a differential diagnosis of any disease ranging from infections to malignancies. But tuberculosis as a primary cause of respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation is an uncommon occurrence. Among patients with pulmonary tuberculosis, those with miliary or disseminated disease or having comorbidities like acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [AIDS] are especially prone to develop acute respiratory distress syndrome [ARDS]. We present a case of a young female with no comorbidities or immuno suppression who presented with ARDS to us. We initially managed with mechanical ventilation and broad spectrum antibiotics, but there was no improvement. Only after anti tubercular therapy [ATT] and corticosteroids the patient recovered

Establishment and Evaluation of a Simplified Evaluation System of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

PURPOSE: In recent years, a variety of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) evaluation systems have been developed worldwide; however, they are not so convenient for the doctors clinically, we decided to establish and evaluate a simplified evaluation system of ARDS (SESARDS). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data from 140 ARDS patients (derivation data set) were collected to screen for prognostic factors affecting outcomes in ARDS patients. By logistic regression analysis, scores were allocated to corresponding intervals of the variables, respectively, by means of analysis of the frequency distribution to establish a preliminary scoring system. Based on this primary scoring system, a definitive evaluation scheme was created through consultation with a panel of experts. The scores for the validation data set (92 cases) were assigned and calculated by their predictive mortality with the SESARDS and acute physiology and chronic health evaluation II (APACHE II). The performance of SESARDS was compared with that of APACHE II by means of statistical analysis. RESULTS: The factors of age, pH, Glasgow coma scale (GCS), oxygenation index (OI), and the lobes of lung were associated with prognosis of ARDS respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of SESARDS for the validation data set were 96.43% and 58.33%, respectively. On the AUC, no significant difference between APACHE II and SESARDS was detected. There were no significant differences between the prediction and the actuality obtained by SESARDS for the validation data set the SESARDS scores were positively correlated with the actual mortality. CONCLUSION: SESARDS was shown to be simple, accurate and effective in predicting ARDS progression.

Nueva definición de Berlín de síndrome de distrés respiratorio agudo / New definition of Berlin for acute respiratory distress syndrome

Desde la definición de síndrome de distrés respiratorio agudo (SDRA) realizada por Ashbaugh y cols. en 1967,varias modificaciones fueron propuestas hasta 1994 en donde la Conferencia del Consenso Americano-Europeo propuso una nueva definición que ha perdurado casi 2 décadas y ha sido operativa para la investigación y de utilidad para los clínicos. Sin embargo, varios autores han sido crítico de ésta, encontrando varias deficiencias entre lasque se encuentra la baja especificidad de esta definición (51 por ciento). En el año 2011, un panel de expertos internacional desarrolló la nueva definición de Berlín de SDRA, la cual se centro en la viabilidad, fiabilidad, validez, y la evaluación objetiva de su rendimiento. Ésta, incorpora varias modificaciones entre las cuales destaca la categorización del SDRA en 3 niveles (leve, moderado y grave) de acuerdo al grado de hipoxemia que presenta el paciente con un mínimo de uso de PEEP (>5 cm H2O) y elimina el concepto de Daño Pulmonar agudo o ALI. Este documento analiza la nueva definición de SDRA.

From the definition of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) by Ashbaugh et al in 1967, several amendments were proposed until 1994 in which the American-European Consensus Conference proposed a new definition that has lasted almost 2 decades and has been operational for research and useful to clinicians. However, several authors have criticized adressing towards several weaknesses on it, including the low specificity of this definition (51 percent). In 2011, a panel of experts developed the Berlin Definition of ARDS, focusing on feasibility, reliability, validity, and objective evaluation of its performance. It incorporates several modifications among which the categorization of ARDS in 3 levels (mild, moderate and severe) according to the degree of hypoxemia in the patient with minimal use of PEEP (>5cm H2O) and eliminates the concept of acute lung injury (ALI). This paper discusses the new definition of ARDS.

Fractured tracheostomy tube migrating into the tracheobronchial tree: A rare complication.

Tracheostomy is a life saving procedure and many patients are discharged with permanent tracheostomy tubes. We report the rare occurrence of a fractured tracheostomy tube migrating into the tracheobronchial tree and highlight the clinical manifestations of this uncommon complication that carries the potential risk of fatal respiratory obstruction.

Síndrome do Desconforto Respiratório Agudo: definição / Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: definition

A definição da síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo (SDRA), simplificada pela Conferência Americana e Europeia de Consenso em SDRA de 1998, inclui a presença de infiltrado pulmonar bilateral, relação pressão parcial arterial de oxigênio/fração inspirada de oxigênio < 200 mmHg e pressão capilar pulmonar < 18 mmHg ou ausência de sinais de insuficiência cardíaca esquerda. Atualmente, o entendimento mais complexo da SDRA inclui sua análise mais detalhada pela tomografia de tórax e por outros métodos de imagem. A utilização de marcadores genéticos e biomarcadores plasmáticos e no lavado broncoalveolar antecipará o diagnóstico e o prognóstico de SDRA. A introdução de sistemas automáticos de diagnóstico e a análise de fatores de risco e de fatores prognósticos associados à SDRA ajudarão no entendimento mais aprofundado da doença para seu melhor tratamento e diminuição de suas taxas de mortalidade.

The definition of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) was simplified at the 1998 American-European Consensus Conference of 1998 and now includes the following: bilateral pulmonary infiltrates; arterial oxygen tension/fraction of inspired oxygen < 200 mmHg; and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure < 18 mmHg or no signs of left heart failure. Recently, tomography and other imaging methods have allowed the chest to be analyzed in greater detail, thereby leading to a more complex understanding of ARDS. The use of genetic markers and biomarkers in plasma and bronchoalveolar lavage could lead to earlier ARDS diagnosis, thereby improving prognosis. The introduction of automatic diagnostic screening, together with the analysis of risk factors and prognostic factors associated with the syndrome, will deepen the understanding of ARDS, improving treatment and potentially reducing the associated mortality rates.

Fatores de risco na síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo / Risk factors for acute respiratory distress syndrome

A síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo (SDRA) é uma condição crítica que consiste de insuficiência respiratória hipoxêmica aguda grave, com infiltrados pulmonares bilaterais que não são atribuídos a hipertensão atrial esquerda. Trata-se de uma desordem heterogênea que pode ser desencadeada por variadas etiologias. Um melhor conhecimento de seus fatores de risco pode ajudar no seu diagnóstico precoce. Os fatores de risco para SDRA têm permanecido os mesmos por vários anos e incluem pneumonia, sepse, aspiração de conteúdo gástrico, trauma grave e múltiplas transfusões, dentre outros. Essas condições clínicas podem ser divididas entre aquelas associadas à lesão direta dos pulmões (fatores pulmonares) e àquelas que causam lesão indireta, no contexto de um processo sistêmico (fatores extrapulmonares). Enquanto alguns autores argumentam que esses fatores resultam em apresentações diferentes, as implicações clínicas dessa classificação não foram bem estabelecidas. Outras condições podem aumentar a suscetibilidade para SDRA, como abuso de álcool, obesidade e ventilação mecânica com altos volumes correntes e altas pressões de vias aéreas; por outro lado, diabetes parece reduzir o risco de desenvolvimento de SDRA. Nos últimos anos, especial interesse tem surgido em estudos sobre predisposição genética à SDRA, e, no futuro, eles poderão ajudar na compreensão do motivo pelo qual apenas alguns pacientes com estímulo patológico desenvolvem a síndrome.

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) results in critical illness consisting of acute severe hypoxemic respiratory failure with bilateral pulmonary infiltrates that are not attributable to left atrial hypertension. It is a heterogeneous disorder that can be triggered by myriad etiologies. Greater knowledge of the risk factors involved could increase the rate of early ARDS diagnosis. The risk factors for ARDS, which have remained the same for several years, include pneumonia, sepsis, aspiration of gastric contents, severe trauma, and multiple transfusions. These can be divided into those associated with direct injury to the lung (pulmonary factors) and those that cause indirect lung injury in the setting of a systemic process (extrapulmonary factors). Although some authors argue that the various risk factors provoke different presentations, the clinical implications have not been clarified. Other conditions that can increase susceptibility to ARDS include alcohol abuse, obesity, and mechanical ventilation with high tidal volume and high airway pressure. However, diabetes seems to reduce the risk of developing ARDS. In recent years, there has been increased interest in the study of genetic predisposition to ARDS, which might eventually prove helpful in explaining why only some patients with pathologic stimuli develop the syndrome.

Diagnóstico da síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo na criança / Diagnosis of pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome

Este estudo faz uma revisão crítica da definição da Conferência Americana e Europeia de Consenso em lesão pulmonar aguda (LPA) e síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo (SDRA), procurando responder as seguintes questões: 1) é superior a outras definições existentes?; 2) identifica um grupo de pacientes com os mesmos mecanismos fisiopatológicos?; 3) tem valor prognóstico?; 4) identifica um grupo de pacientes que pode se beneficiar das mesmas estratégias terapêuticas?; e 5) pode ser extrapolada adequadamente para a faixa etária pediátrica? Os autores buscam também soluções para contornar as limitações da definição de hipoxemia na faixa etária pediátrica e apresentam que a maneira mais simples e homogênea de se diagnosticar hipoxemia precocemente na criança é a medida não invasiva da SpO2 em ar ambiente. Por fim, são apresentadas duas propostas de definição da LPA/SDRA na criança: uma mais abrangente, para diagnóstico precoce e aplicação em estudos de triagem sobre abordagem preventiva, e outra mais restrita, para utilização em crianças submetidas à ventilação mecânica, em estudos explanatórios de eficácia terapêutica.

This study critically evaluates the American-European Consensus Conference definition of acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and attempts to answer the following questions: 1) Is it better than other definitions?; 2) Does it identify a group of patients with the same pathophysiological mechanisms?; 3) Does it have prognostic value?; 4) Does it distinguish a group of patients that will benefit from the same therapeutic strategies?; and 5) Can it be effectively extrapolated to children? Alternatives to the invasive procedures employed in order to identify hypoxemia are also discussed. The authors presented a simple way to diagnose early hypoxemia in children based on SpO2. Finally, two definitions of pediatric ALI/ARDS are proposed: a broader and more sensitive definition, to be used in screening for early ALI and in pragmatic trials; and a more restrictive and specific definition, to be used in mechanically ventilated children evaluated in explanatory trials for therapeutic intervention purposes.

Volumetric capnography in acute respiratory distress syndrome / Capnografia volumétrica na síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo

Volumetric capnography is especially sensitive to disturbances affecting the efficiency of ventilation for gas exchange. Because lung homogeneity is a very fragile property, it is endangered in the majority of diseases that affect the airways, lung parenchyma, or alveolar microcirculation. Acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome can be conveniently monitored with volumetric capnography. The combination of two advanced technologies—airway flow monitoring and mainstream capnography—allows breath-by-breath bedside computerized determination of the physiological dead space, alveolar heterogeneity, and CO2 elimination. The use of volumetric capnography at the bedside can provide clinicians with important physiological and prognostic data, as well as allowing the effects of therapeutic interventions to be evaluated in critical ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation.

A capnografia volumétrica é especialmente sensível aos problemas que afetam a eficiência da ventilação para a troca gasosa. Uma vez que a homogeneidade do pulmão é uma propriedade muito frágil, a medida da capnografia é um desafio na maioria das doenças que comprometem as vias aéreas, o parênquima pulmonar e a microcirculação alveolar. A lesão pulmonar aguda e síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo são situações que devem ser monitoradas com a capnografia volumétrica. Essa tecnologia avançada é uma combinação da medida do fluxo aéreo e a capnografia convencional, fazendo com que seja possível computar, à beira do leito, parâmetros como espaço morto, heterogeneidade alveolar e eliminação do CO2. O uso da capnografia volumétrica à beira do leito pode fornecer aos clínicos importantes informações fisiológicas e sobre o prognóstico, assim como seguir o efeito de intervenções terapêuticas nos doentes críticos ventilados mecanicamente.

Síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo: fatores prognósticos / Acute respiratory distress syndrome: prognostic factors

O conhecimento dos fatores prognósticos de pacientes com síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo (SDRA) é importante para estabelecermos a gravidade da doença e para o planejamento de novas medidas terapêuticas. A revisão dos estudos epidemiológicos publicados nos últimos dez anos através do PubMed/Medline, utilizando o critério diagnóstico da Conferência Americana e Europeia de Consenso em SDRA de 1994, revelou os seguintes fatores prognósticos em pacientes com SDRA: fatores gerais — idade avançada, escores prognósticos gerais elevados (Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation, Simplified Acute Physiology Score e Mortality Prediction Model) e escores para disfunção orgânica múltipla elevados (Multiple Organ Dysfunction Score, Logistic Organ Dysfunction Score e Sequential Organ Failure Assessment); e fatores específicos — relação pressão parcial arterial de oxigênio/fração inspirada de oxigênio baixa e presença dos elementos causais da SDRA, como pneumonia, sepse e choque. A SDRA secundária a trauma apresenta melhor prognóstico.

An understanding of the prognostic factors of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is essential for determining its severity and for designing studies to evaluate potential therapies. A review of epidemiologic studies published in the last ten years in PubMed/Medline, using the 1994 American-European Consensus Conference diagnostic criteria, indicated that the following are prognostic factors for ARDS: general factors—advanced age, elevated general prognostic scores (Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation, Simplified Acute Physiology Score, and Mortality Prediction Model), and elevated multiple organ systems dysfunction scores (Multiple Organ Dysfunction Score, Logistic Organ Dysfunction Score, and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment); and specific factors—low arterial carbon dioxide tension/fraction of inspired oxygen ratio and ARDS predisposing disorders, such as pneumonia, sepsis, and shock. The prognosis is better for patients with ARDS occurring secondary to major trauma than for those with ARDS of other etiologies. ARDS patients with the above risks factors constitute a population at high risk of in-hospital mortality.

Use of Nafamostat Mesilate as an Anticoagulant during Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation

Although the incidence of bleeding complications during extracorporeal membrane oxygenator (ECMO) support has decreased in various trials, bleeding is still the most fatal complication. We investigated the ideal dosage and efficacy of nafamostat mesilate for use with ECMO in patients with acute cardiac or respiratory failure. We assessed 73 consecutive patients who received ECMO due to acute cardiac or respiratory failure between January 2006 and December 2009. To evaluate the efficacy of nafamostat mesilate, we divided the patients into 2 groups according to the anticoagulants used during ECMO support. All patients of nafamostat mesilate group were male with a mean age of 49.2 yr. Six, 3, 5, and 3 patients were diagnosed with acute myocardial infarction, cardiac arrest, septic shock, and acute respiratory distress syndrome, respectively. The mean dosage of nafamostat mesilate was 0.64 mg/kg/hr, and the mean duration of ECMO was 270.7 hr. The daily volume of transfused packed red blood cells, fresh frozen plasma, and cryoprecipitate and the number of complications related to hemorrhage and thrombosis was lower in the nafamostat mesilate group than in the heparin group. Nafamostat mesilate should be considered as an alternative anticoagulant to heparin to reduce bleeding complications during ECMO.

Pediatric hospitalizations associated with 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1): An experience from a tertiary care center in north India.

Objectives To describe our experience in children hospitalized with the pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) from Northern India. Methods The retrospective case study was conducted at the Pediatric ward and Pediatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU) dedicated to the children (aged 18 years or younger) with influenza-like illness (ILI) with positive laboratory test results for pandemic H1N1 by reverse-transcriptase polymerasechain- reaction assay. Results Between August 2009 and January 2010, a total of 100 children were hospitalized with suspected 2009 H1N1 influenza with Category “C” as described by the Government of India. Twenty five patients were positive for H1N1 and 9 for seasonal influenza A. The most common presentation (H1N1 positive) was with fever (100%), cough (100%), coryza (52%), respiratory distress (88%), vomiting (28%) and diarrhea (16%). One child presented with hypernatremic dehydration and seizures (Serum sodium 174 meq/l). Of the H1N1 positive hospitalized children, 7 (28%) had respiratory failure and required PICU admission, 4 (16%) required mechanical ventilation, and 3 (12%) died. The major radiological findings were bilateral pulmonary infiltrates and consolidation. All patients were treated with oral Oseltamivir suspension or capsule as per appropriate weigh band and supportive care as required. Two deaths were caused by refractory hypoxemia and one by refractory shock. Conclusions The exact incidence of Pandemic 2009 H1N1 influenza on morbidity and mortality is difficult to calculate since only Category “C” patients were screened.

Pseudocyst in pulmonary acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).

Childhood ARDS is mostly caused by pneumonia. Pulmonary pseudocysts are reported in adults recovering from ARDS, usually in non-dependent lung regions. The authors present a 1.5-year-old boy, who survived severe pulmonary ARDS with development of pulmonary giant pseudocysts and other structural abnormalities in dependent lung region. To the best of authors knowledge, it is the first follow up report of pulmonary abnormality in a toddler with ARDS of extreme severity.